Reoccurring Themes And Symbols In Different Works By Nathaniel Hawthor

Reoccurring Themes And Symbols In Different Works By Nathaniel Hawthorne Reoccurring Themes and Symbols in Different Works by Nathaniel Hawthorne Its an obvious fact that Nathaniel Hawthornes The Ministers Black Veil is a story. Hawthorne expected it thusly and even gave the story the caption an illustration. The Ministers Black Veil, be that as it may, was not Hawthornes just illustration. Hawthorne frequently utilized images and allegorical language to give added significance to the exacting translations of his work. His Puritan heritage additionally impacted quite a bit of Hawthornes work. Rather than concurring with Puritanism notwithstanding, Hawthorne would reprimand it through the images and topics in his accounts and stories. A few of these images and topics reoccur in Hawthornes The Ministers Black Veil, Young Goodman Brown, and The Scarlet Letter. One especially perceptible topic in Hawthornes work is that of mystery sin (Newman 338). In the Young Goodman Brown, this subject is clear when youthful Mr. Earthy colored dreams that he is driven by the fallen angel to a witching gathering. There he sees the entirety of the decent and devout citizenry, including his clergyman and the lady who showed him his drills, communing with the sovereign of dimness. After arousing, the deceptive idea of his once appreciated neighbors and the acknowledgment of his own mystery sin makes him become awfully frustrated (Colacurcio 396). Something very similar occurs in The Ministers Black Veil, with the exception of the peruser doesn't know precisely what mystery sin makes Reverend Hooper start to wear the dark cloak. Numerous researchers accept this has something to do with the memorial service of the youngster toward the start of the story. The suppositions extend from accepting that Reverend Hooper cherished the young lady stealthily, to Poes accept that Reverend Hooper may have really been the reason for the young ladies passing (Newman 204). Whatever the explanation, the clergymen wearing of the cloak corrupts his perspective on every other person around him, making every one of them appear as though they are wearing shroud too (Hawthorne 107). Dimmesdales mystery sin with Hester Prynne is conceded toward the finish of the story, however the subject of mystery sin isn't as utilized as emphatically in this novel as it was in Hawthornes stories (Dryden 147). Be that as it may, two of the primary topics in The Scarlet Letter are noticeable in both of different stories. The first is the debasement of the church. In The Scarlet Letter, Reverend Dimmesdale is a decent minister. He isn't, be that as it may, the Puritan perfect of what a minister ought to be. He is human, and yields to human wants when he lays down with Hester Prynne. Both Reverend Hooper and the priest in Young Goodman Brown are degenerate too. Reverend Hoopers sins with the perished youngster are indicated, yet at the same time equivocal. The pastor in Young Goodman Brown is a vastly improved case of degenerate church. He is in participation at the witches meeting only one day before he would go before his assemblage and lecture the expression of God. This is no uncertainty another impression of Hawthornes faith in the lip service of Puritanism. Another component regular in these three works by Hawthorne is the way that wrongdoing alienates one from society. In The Scarlet Letter, Hesters is marked with an image of her wrongdoing, so her partition from society is constrained as a type of discipline. She isn't truly expelled from society, yet she will always again be unable to assume a similar job in the public arena that she once played. Every other person, fail to peer inside their heart at their own transgression, denounces Hester for her infidelity and turns their back to her. In Young Goodman Brown, Mr. Earthy colored deliberately decides to cut himself off from human love and friendship (Hawthorne 75). In any case, while Hesters neighbors walk out on her in view of her infidelity, Mr. Earthy colored segregates himself since he is nauseated by the bad faith that he knows is available in the lives of the individuals around him. At long last, the shroud worn by Reverend Hooper in The Ministers Black Veil isolates him from society, and from God (Dryden 138). Regardless of whether this detachment is willful or forced relies upon what one looks like at the circumstance. It is deliberate in that Reverend Hooper realizes that his wearing

49ers :: essays research papers

There are extraordinary occasions noted before. One of those extraordinary groups in the San Francisco 49ers. They have impacted the world forever and are known as one of the sort establishments throughout the entire existence of the NFL. The 49ers are viewed as an administration to the media and fans. The 49ers are regarded significantly for their Super Bowl accomplishments.      It all began in 1946 when the San Francisco 49ers initially started their establishment. In 1950 is the point at which the moved to the National Football League. They earned their name from the gold excavators who flooded in San Francisco, in 1849, in scan for gold so they could begin another life. Their first proprietor, Anthony J. Morabito, who was from the University of Santa Clara former student, had a fantasy about bringing a football crew toward the west. He had been respectably fruitful in the wood pulling business. To get this going, Anthony was placed in contact with Arch Ward, a proofreader of the Chicago Tribune. Mr. Ward is credited with the All-American Conference, which was first held in October 1944. Anthony, after a meaningful conversation and haggling with Mr. Ward, was conceded an establishment with assistance from his more youthful sibling, Victor, and accomplices in his stumbling business, Allen E. Sorrell, and E. J. Turre (â€Å"Niner’s his tory† www.49ersparadise.com).      In Morabito’s first year he marked numerous acclaimed and capable individuals, for example, Frankie Albert, Joe Vetrano, and Alyn Beals. With Lawerecneh T. (Buck) Shaw as the lead trainer, the 49ers gradually won consistently, as they attempted to get a spot in the National Football League. In their initial four years in the ACC, the 49ers completed second behind the ability pressed Cleveland Browns. At long last, in 1950, fans celebrated for the section of the 49ers into the NFL. They joined extraordinary groups, for example, the Cleveland Browns and the Baltimore Colts (â€Å"Niner’s history† www.49ersparadise.com). When they got in, it appeared, they were making changes to make them a top contender in the alliance. Joined by Y.A. Tittle, and shared quarterback Frankie Albert, the 49ers missed the Conference Finals considerably game. From that point on they were in the race for the prize with the exception of in the years 1955, 1956, and 1958. Similarly as everything seemed as though things being what they are incredible, an appalling occasion happened that frightened players and fans forever. During a game on October 27, 1957, Tony Morabito kicked the bucket of a respiratory failure.

be in it to win it COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

be in it to win it COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog So you want to serve the global community?   Get the skills and the network to be a leader. The SIPA MIA/MPA application deadline is tonight, February 5, 2014 [at 23:59:59 EST]. We are gearing up for the final rush of applications.     Materials are coming in every day.   We are processing them quickly so they make it to the Admission Committee for review.   Our readers have been pleased with those who submitted earlier last month; they anticipate a good show this time around too. Your application must be complete in order for it to move to the next stage of the process.   Check your application status for received materials by logging into your application.   If you are uncertain, review our recent post on application status.   Keep in mind if you mail in your materials, it may take a few days before your application status is updated. If you want to shape policy and lead change, you need to be at SIPA.   But first you need to apply.   So what are you waiting for?   Dont delay.   Submit.

The Christian Era Of The Western Roman Empire - 1424 Words

In the year 476 A.D, the Christian era of the Western Roman empire came to a close. What followed would be a series of Germanic Kingdoms such as the Visigoths, Angles, and Saxons. These kingdoms, like most budding nations, founded their own unique political systems, laying the groundwork for future European nations. Although these kingdoms were deemed â€Å"independent†, they still found themselves under the jurisdiction of the Church. This subjected them to the political model of the Church, and by extension Rome. The first pope to recognize the full potential of the papacy was Leo the Great. In his two decades of servitude, he planted the seeds of Christian control to come over the next millennia in asserting the pope’s authority over other bishops by the power of the keys, granted by Jesus to Peter. In doing this Leo the Great positioned the pope as the sole arbiter in holy matters, establishing the position as that of enormous spiritual power. With the collapse of Roman authority in the West, the papacy found itself well positioned to take a lead in temporal affairs as well. The Church had already demonstrated its ability to exert spiritual authority over the ruling class, but this opened the door for more diplomatic controls. When Rome was threatened by Attila the Hun, it was Pope Leo the Great who is credited with persuading Attila to turn back short of Rome. Whatever the truth of his role was, Leo had set a precedent for the broader role of the papacy in secular dealings.Show More RelatedChristianity And The Rise Of Christianity1395 Words   |  6 Pagesbegan as a small sect of Judaism during the 1st century in ancient Israel and spread to the Americas and the rest of the world through colonization and Christian missionaries. Christianity has played a conspicuous role in the shaping of Western civilization. The impact and the rapid spread of this religion eventually came to dominate the Western world. Christianity Christianity is the monotheistic religion based upon the life, oral teachings and miracles of Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus lived in PalestineRead MoreThe Development of Christianity in America1595 Words   |  7 Pagesspread through the Western world, it rarely followed a linear path: different pockets of faith and doctrine were developed by a variety of peoples in an even greater variety of locales. Nowhere is this more evident than in Roman Britain and the era of Anglo-Saxon migrations. In five centuries, English religious culture transformed from one of pagan worship to that of leadership in the Christian world. Controversies included more than merely pagan-Christian dynamics; the Christians were greatly dividedRead MoreThe Rise And The Spread Of Christianity Essay1154 Words   |  5 PagesGreek speaking cities administrated from the Roman Empire.   The   key figure of Christianity is Jesus, about him we learned only in the Paul`s letters, one of his followers lived during the 5 0`s – 60`s A.D.   Jesus born round 4 B.C.E in Nazareth, was a preacher and thought to have had unusually   healing power. He became very popular and was followed by crowds of people wherever he went.   His movement was considered as political power and so Roman empire   concerned from Jesus arrested and crucifiedRead MoreMedieval Christian Europe2199 Words   |  9 Pagesthe Western Roman empire Western Europe was a disjointed land that had no true unifying structure till the rise of Christianity. In Roman antiquity people used the State or empire of Rome to define themselves and give them a sense of unity despite having a diverse group of people within the empire. When Western Rome fell this belief based on a Roman cultural identity disappeared and no longer were people able to identify themselves with any particular group as they once have. The Christian religionRead MoreRomes Contribution to Todays Society Essay934 Words   |  4 Pagesthe Roman era. However, the eras single most important contribution to modern society was Romes adoption of Christianity. Christianity, having its foundational roots in Judaism, was born in the midst of the Roman era. It has shaped todays society on many different levels with varying degrees of legal, political and sociological implications. Christianity was an outgrowth of Judaism, one of the three major monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) practiced during the Roman eraRead MoreRoman Empire And Christian Art1539 Words   |  7 Pagesof Rome. Constantine is often credited with primarily introducing and converting the Roman empire to follow the christian faith. His rule brought about the conversion of citizens from different social standings. His religious influence culturally enriched christian art, adding different styles to the works of the greco- roman world. Combining the early abstraction of christian art and diminishing the use of roman imperial realism. Constantine s faith in christianity was founded much later in hisRead MoreThe Byzantine Empire Essay1197 Words   |  5 PagesThe Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, the survivor of the Roman empire, flourished into the oldest and longest lasting empire in our history. It began with Constantine the Greats triumph of Christianity. He then transferred his capital from Rome to the refounded Byzantium in the early 4th century, year 330 AD, and named it Constantinople after himself. This city became the surviving safe spot after the breakup of the Western Roman empire by the 5th century. It was by far the largestRead MoreChristianity And The Fall Of The Western Roman Empire1349 Words   |  6 Pagesfall of the Western Roman Empire as it related to theatre but I was intrigued to learn more. It didn’t seem sensible that the fall of the Western Empire would be placed, even a little, on the rise of Christianity during that time. It didn’t seem sensible for two reasons. The first reason is that Jesus Christ, in whom the Christians believed, had been born, lived, and crucified over 400 years before the Empire fell. His lifetime spanned only until the second emperor of the Roman Empire, before Rome’sRead MoreHumanism And The Renaissance Era940 Words   |  4 PagesQuestion #1 Humanism in the Renaissance Era was the notion that only the Human existence is what mattered. It rejected all aspects of the medieval era, a millennium, obsessed with all things Christian, God, and Faith driven. I partial agree with this statement; Humanism in the Renaissance Era was the notion that only the Human existence is what mattered. It rejected all aspects of the medieval era, a millennium, obsessed with all things Christian, God, and Faith driven. I believe the peopleRead MoreThe Creation of Rome1288 Words   |  5 Pagesaround 264 B.C.E. To the Romans, their political abilities were just as important as their army’s strength. Their political system worked so well because, when they conquered smaller societies the Romans allowed the conquered societies to rule themselves. Rome would also grant citizenship to non-Romans so long as the conquered societies followed Roman law and met the requirements. The republic of Rome was ruled by an Aristocratic oligarchy. In the beginning the Romans had no desire to expand any

The Life Of Frederick Douglass And The Life Of A Slave Girl

Jamiya Brooks Comparative Paper November 18, 2014 The Life of Frederick Douglass the Life of a Slave Girl The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass and The Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl are both nineteenth-century narratives about Frederick Douglass and Harriet Jacobs’s experiences born into slavery and as escaped slaves. The concept of gender makes each narrative have distinct perspectives’ of their version of what they endure during slavery and how it shapes their freedom. Even though both narratives have many similarities of educating the complexity of being a vulnerable slave, Harriet Jacobs’ narrative provides more reason that slavery is far worse for women than it is for men. When looking at the viewpoint of slavery, Harriet Jacobs observed slavery different than Frederick Douglass. For example, when Harriet states, â€Å"I was born a slave; but I not ever knew it†¦Ã¢â‚¬  During her childhood, she did not realize that she was a slave. Harriet then goes on to say, â€Å"†¦ I was so fondly shielded that I never dreamed I was a piece of merchandise, trusted to them for safe keeping...† In that quote, Harriet shows that she believed she was untouchable for now because of her family security. On the other hand, Frederick Douglass knew that slavery was existing in his childhood. In Chapter One, he states, â€Å"A want of information concerning my own was a source of unhappiness to me even during childhood.† Frederick was aware of slavery and looked at his captivityShow MoreRelatedLife of a Slave Girl and Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass1524 Words   |  6 Pagesslavery, â€Å"But one of the worst results of being a slave and being forced to do things is that when there is no one to force you any more you find you have almost lost the power of forcing yourself†. One of the most important aspects of anybody’s life and also thought to be the meaning of life is, for everybody to what they want when they want as long as they are not hurting anybody else. A life spent playing by somebody else’s rules is simply a life not worth living. Slavery is one of the most disgustingRead MoreThe Life Of A Slave Girl By Frederick Douglass And Harriet Jacobs1208 Words   |  5 PagesFrederick Douglass and Harriet Jacobs are both prominent influential authors of the Reform Era. Both writers, who spring forth from similar backgrounds and unimaginable situations, place a spotlight on the peculiar circumstances that surrounded the lives of the African American slaves. After reading and analyzing both Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, and the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass; rea ders discover the horrifying truths that belong to the past in connection to slavery.Read MoreThe Life Of A Slave Girl By Harriet Jacobs And Frederick Douglass1618 Words   |  7 Pagesendeavors, notably most if not all that slaves faced, and constructs a bridge that connects the gap between the readers to the slaves who are subjected to the endeavors and hardships as seen through autobiographies of many former slaves such as Harriet Jacobs’s and Frederick Douglass’s. Jacobs’s â€Å"Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl† and Douglass’s â€Å"Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass† both illustrate great examples of the obstacles and barriers that slaves had to overcome. The protagonists inRead More Dreams in Song of Solomon, Narrative Frederick Douglass, Life of a Slave Girl, and Push2208 Words   |  9 PagesDreams in Song of Solomon, Narrative of Frederick Douglass, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, and Push    In 1776 it was stated that our country was based upon one simple truth, That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Though stated with a poetic justice, this statement did not hold true for all U.S. citizens. Many citizens were held in captivity, versus freedomRead More American Dream in Song of Solomon, Narrative Frederick Douglass, Life of a Slave Girl, and Push1924 Words   |  8 PagesAmerican Dream in Song of Solomon, Narrative of Frederick Douglass, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, and Push   Ã‚   In an era where knowledge is power, the emphasis on literacy in African American texts is undeniable. Beginning with the first African American literary works, the slave narratives, through the canons more recent successes such as Toni Morrisons Song of Solomon and Sapphires Push, the topic of literacy is almost inextricably connected to freedom and power. A closer investigationRead MoreThe Life of A Slave Girl by Harriet A. Jacobs Essay1272 Words   |  6 PagesA slave narrative is to tell a slaves story and what they have been through. Six thousand former slaves from North America told about their lives during the 18th and 19th centuries. About 150 narratives were published as separate books or articles most slaves were born in the last years of the slave regime or during the Civil War. Some Slaves told about their experiences on plantations, in cities, and on small farms. Slave narratives are one of the only ways that people today know about the wayRead MoreEssay on O ut of the Silence1445 Words   |  6 PagesThe slave narrative genre is an important part of American history. These stories are not only portraits of individual history, but also of American history. By reading the stories of the past we can better determine the path of the future. The personal stories of Frederick Douglass and Harriet Jacobs are two excellent examples of the slave narrative genre in American literature. To be sure, bondage and oppression had a lasting and profound effect on both genders; however, men and women experiencedRead MoreRhetoric Essay1230 Words   |  5 PagesAkinyemi Adebayo Mrs. Crocco AP: English 13 December 2012 Does Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass appeal to pathos, logos, or ethos? The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass is an autobiography in which Mr. Douglass tells his life story. He was born into slavery and experienced many harsh realities that shaped his life. Frederick Douglass was a free black man at the time in which he told this story. He is writing to his audience to inform them about slavery. His claim is thatRead MoreJacobs Douglass: An Insight Into The Experience of The American Slave1019 Words   |  5 PagesThe slave narratives of the ante-bellum time period have come across numerous types of themes. Much of the work concentrates on the underlining ideas beneath the stories. In the narratives, fugitives and ex-slaves appealed to the humanity they shared with their readers during these times, men being lynched and marked all over and women being the subject of grueling rapes. The slave narrative of Frederick Douglas and Harriet Jacobs: Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl themes come from the existenceRead MoreThe Cruelty Of Masters Toward Slaves1235 Words   |  5 Pagesof Masters toward Slaves During the nineteenth century, masters would mistreat their slaves. Some examples of this misconduct would be whippings, a lack of food, a lack of clothing, and malicious language directed at the slave. The injuries that the slaves would receive could never heal because before the wounds could heal, they would be beaten again. Frederick Douglass, a slave during the 1800s, in his autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave, he strives to persuade

Get the Scoop on Ielts.org Essay Samples Before Youre Too Late

Get the Scoop on Ielts.org Essay Samples Before You're Too Late You could also see persuasive speech. Although it isn't recommended, paraphrasing the quote in your essay is a great means to hold up your argument. Most academic essay topics usually ask you to choose a side in an argument or maybe to defend a specific side against criticism. Any superior task finishes with a terrific conclusion and the very best examples of the argumentative essay will arrive in with a conclusion with an overview of all of the points together with a gist of the evidences provided. Ielts.org Essay Samples - the Story You can also see college essay. If you would like to figure out how to compose a great persuasive essay, you're looking in the proper location! Generally speaking, students are requested to compose assignments which take between 30 minutes and a complete hour. There are many persuasive essay examples college students are able to make use of online. The One Thing to Do for Ielts .org Essay Samples Hopefully, the discussions together with the essay examples presented above have enlightened you so that you are now able to begin making your own essay. Possessing good essay examples provides the reader an in-depth and on-the-court idea about what a well structured and coherent essay appears like. The overall statement will act as your guide throughout your essay. Sample persuasive essays can also offer inspiration on topics to write on in addition to serve as examples about how to compose your essay. Importantly, you ought to think about how to compose argumentative essay introduction and allow it to be effective. You can also see essay examples. You might also like totally free essay examples. The Ielts.org Essay Samples Cover Up The wonderful argumentative Scholarship Essay Samples formats and samples are just world-class, and they're going to inspire individuals to write argumentative essays in various competitions. Selecting a great topic for your essay is among the most significant and frequently tricky parts for many students. Students have to compose essays based on the teacher's instructions or their preferred style in writing. On the 1 hand, our descriptive essay outline sample will provide you a sense of the critical sections and portions of a descriptive essay. You could also see synthesis essay. You can take an informa l essay. however, it still ought to have a strong structure. Like any different type of essay, descriptive essays comes in a variety of formats. Put simply, essay writing was classified as a formal and informal kind of writing. Before writing any form of academic paper, it is crucial to choose the subject, and the persuasive essay isn't the exception. Just stick to the guidelines stated above, and you're going to be well on your way to writing a very good persuasive essay. The greatest persuasive short essays often concentrate on controversial problems. Definitions of Ielts.org Essay Samples When you revise your essay, you've got to make sure its organization is completely appropriate to your intended audience, the paper context, and the objective. So as to successfully contest your viewpoint, especially when attempting to spell out why a certain idea is more valid than the other, you must have the ability to understand either side of the problem. At times, the best method to learn and understand new information is via seeing and understanding work which is already completed. The whole procedure for visiting the offic e needs to be described. Understanding Ielts.org Essay Samples Your paragraphs should have distinct points and specific pieces. Hence, it's proper that you need to first make an outline on the important ideas which you have in mind prior to going through the specifics. On account of the outline, you're going to learn where you're heading and what topic that you're likely to tackle next. You don't necessarily understand how you feel regarding a specific subject or topic and you allow research along with your own direction to ascertain the outline. The Fight Against Ielts.org Essay Samples The target of a persuasive essay is to convince your readers your viewpoint is the perfect viewpoint. The simplest approach to figure out the sort of an essay is to realize the writer's point of view. A persuasive essay should be able to grab the interest of the folks reading it easily. The argumentative essay has a certain format that should be followed to blow the mind of the reader, an d it's particularly helpful for students together with the corporate when making strategic proposals. Persuasive writing can be challenging, particularly when you're made to face with a close-minded audience. Descriptive Essay on Market can be employed by tourists or visitors that don't have any prior understanding of a marketplace.

How Can Advertising Campaigns Appeal To a Sense of Australianness

Question: How can advertising campaigns appeal to a sense of australianness? Answer: Introduction Australianness is a term that is used to display the Australian culture. Australian culture is very unique and is not at all similar to any other culture. This is because Australian culture is a unique blend of already established old traditions and fresh influences (Prideaux, 2009). The mass media and the advertisements of Australia gives a sense of belongingness to that community by rendering images that precisely belong to Australia. As a result no other nations who are not the part of the Australian community will able to understand it. The advertisers use the different symbols such as humor, masculinity and animals as a part of advertisements in order to remind the Australians about the daily happenings (Kavanagh, 2010). According to the advertisers this helps in giving a sense of patriotism to the viewers. This assignment will be dealing with the advertising factors that includes humor, masculinity and animals and are used by the advertising agencies of Australia for appealing to the sense of Australianness among people. In addition to this, the most important factor among the three factors that appeals the most to the Australians is also discussed. Examples will be cited from the television ads for better understanding of the topic. Thesis Statement 1) Humor One of the most important factors that advertisers use in their advertisement campaigns for appealing the Australians is the Australian unique sense of humor. The humorous images clearly identifies the humor used in the advertisement is simple or complex (Wagler, 2013). The humorous advertisements are so made that it is easily despicable by the Australians and not by other communities. The humor used in Australian advertisements are somewhat complex and unique so that the Australians have a feeling that they are related to the advertisements and no other outsider of the community will be able to relate that to their lives. For example- In the advertisement of Drop Bear for Bundaberg Rum, the Australians will easily depict the humor within the advertisement but the other tourists will fail to do so. According to liburyt and Klimavi ius (2012) the humor used inside the advertisements helps in linking the Australians to the advertisers by arousing the sense of Australianness. In addi tion to this, the traditional humor of Australia is strongly aligned with the national myths and that helps in attracting the Australian viewers towards the advertisements. On the other hand Lang (2010) had a view that Australian humor contains irony and is quick witted with an intension of mocking and making fun of the class system and thereby challenge the British supremacy. Moreover, the advertisements reveal a part of racism and exclusiveness. By using sarcastic comments, the advertisers always give a feeling to Australian consumers that they are inclusive of the joke where no other nation can understand it or take part of it. The Australian humor mainly believes that they are an exclusive nation to understand the humor and no other nation will understand it (Moran, 2010). Another example can be cited from the campaign of I Believe where the announcer jokingly said that he doesnt possess a kangaroo or doesnt wrestle with the crocodiles. The advertiser here makes a fun of the unawareness of the other nations by commenting that no one realized that the stereotypes are false except the Australians. So, by using sarcastic comments and exclusiveness, the advertisers gives a feeling to the Australian consumers that they are unique and are the part of the joke which is not understandable to the rest (Prideaux, 2009). According to Kavanagh (2010), the Australian advertisers are always trying to indulge unique flavor of Australianness through humor and jokes into the advertisements for attracting the people of Australia. This is because; humor can be termed as an important emotional appeal that is generally used in the field of advertisement. The more the advertisers use the humor that arouses Australianness within the advertisements, the Australian feel happy and have a feeling of superiority over the other nations of the world. So, for the companies who are willing to establish a strong foothold on the Australian market have to understand the importance of usage of humor in advertising and use it as a powerful strategy to attract the customers (Wagler, 2013). 2) Masculinity Another major factor that the advertisers use to show the tinge of Australianness in the advertisements is by showing masculinity. In Australia, it is a stereotype belief that males are the carriers of Australianness as compared to the women. For this reason, the men are likely the national identity and are shown in Australian televisions for the advertisements (Lang, 2010). While discussing this context, the idea of Ocker image is evolved. This image defines an ocker as an Australian who is a self satisfied barbarian, has beer, is ignorant and opposes anybody who is unlike him as well as love spending both money and time in pubs. This image gives an impression of masculinity and thereby celebrates the masculinity by drinking excess beer. According to Moran (2010) the Australians have a nostalgic relationship with the masculinity, drinking beer and Australian nationalism. Though it is said that the above mentioned trinity has faded to an extent still the beer advertisements have hold the nostalgia and the feel of traditional Australianness among the people. So, the advertisers of beer companies try to include more masculinity in the advertisements for promoting their advertisements among the Australians. It is said that more the masculinity will be involved in the advertisements, the more the Australian will tend to have that product in their daily life (Kavanagh, 2010). This ultimately gives a feeling of Australianness to the Australians for holding their tradition of drinking beer that helps the companies in gaining a huge customer database and profits. Moreover, this also helps the companies in achieving a positive promotional continuity for their products. Wagler (2013) commented on the fact that the Ockers have a traditional language that is only understandable by the Australians and nobody else. The beer advertising companies make a good use of this language in the advertisements to give a feeling to the viewers that they are the part of the advertisements and no other nations are its part. This gives the Australians a feeling of uniqueness among the world. Moreover, according to Walter J. Thomson, the CEO of one of the biggest advertising company, Burt Manning, commented that the Australians do not drink beer; they only drink the advertisement showing it. Apart from this, Lang (2010) had a view that the advertisements of Australia and masculinity are closely knitted to one another that are well apprehended by the Australian community and not a single one exterior to that community. In addition to this, the masculinity of the Australians is also depicted by showing advertisements where they fight with the dangerous animals. This also gives an essence of masculinity that makes the Australians feel Australianness in the advertisements. 3) Animals The advertisers use another essential factor in the advertisements that appeal the sense of Australianness among the people is the usage of animals. The animals that are showcased in the advertisements are the kangaroos, crocodiles and koalas that are the national animals of Australia. Showing these animals in the advertisements gives a feeling of belongingness and nationalism to the Australians (liburyt and Klimavi ius, 2012). The advertisers take an advantage of this feeling and thereby include animals in the advertisements to give a solid impression of Australianness among the people. An example can be cited from a film named Crocodile Dundee where it shows a good connection between animals and Australianness. Moran (2010) commented on this fact that the image shown in that film where a man wrestles hard with a crocodile became a symbol of Australian males. In addition to this, Steve Irwin who became world famous for finding and dealing the deadliest and the most dangerous animals in Australia also gave a feeling of courage to Australians in dealing with the dangerous animals. The advertisers use this association of Australians with animals in the most effective and tricky way for advertising their products (Wagler, 2013). Apart from this, the advertisers also use animals in order to reveal and trace on masculinity of Australians. Another example can be cited from advertisement of Bundaberg Rum where a bear is portrayed and is seen by the other Australians as one of them. This connects the masculinity of the Australians with the dangerous animals. The animals are thereby used in order to make the Australians remember the product which by consumption or usage give them a feeling of nationalism and Australianness (liburyt and Klimavi ius, 2012). The advertisers thereby these tactics in the most innovational way that help them in contin uing their promotional activities. According to Moran (2010) the advertisements of the companies in order to attract the customers appeal to the sense of Australianness by giving a sense of familiarity. This is because; the Australians will be feeling nostalgic to see the animals that they saw during their childhood in the movies are still used today for the advertisement campaigns. This will give a tendency to the Australians to lean towards that products rather than choosing any other external brands. So, the companies try to use more and more animals in their advertisements to attract the Australians for having their products which ultimately helps the companies in increasing their profits and customers (Kavanagh, 2010). Conclusion Throughout the assignment it is seen that 3 essential factors that are used within the advertisements and appeal the Australianness among the people of Australia are the sense of humor, masculinity and usage of animals. These 3 factors constantly remind the Australians their uniqueness and the sense of nationalism. This is because; these factors are the traditions of Australia that helps them to get differentiated from rest of the world. The advertisers put traces on these 3 factors in order to capture the market and extend their business. However, humor is considered as the best of the 3 factors since the humor and joke that is used within the advertisements is only understandable by the Australians and not by other communities. This results in giving a feeling of snobbery and dominance over other nations. But, if it deeply elaborated and discussed, it is seen that these above mentioned 3 factors have a huge contribution in appealing the Australianness among the people. For a compan y to make the campaigning more appealing and unique, the advertisers have to combine all the three factors that include masculinity, animals and humor in their campaigns to get a better result. Reference List Journals Lang, A. (2010) Troping the masculine: Australian animals, the nation, and the popular imagination, Antipodes, 24(1), pp. 5-10 Prideaux, J. (2009) Consuming icons: Nationalism and advertising in Australia, Nations and Nationalism, 15 (4), pp. 616-635 Moran, C. (2010) Regional Identity and Humor, Rural Society, 20, pp. 101-114 Kavanagh, N. (2010) What better advertisement could Australia have? Encyclopedias and nation-building,National Identities, 12(3), pp.237-252 liburyt, L. and Klimavi ius, M. (2012) Humor appeal in advertising: how to use it effectively, ecoman, 17(3), pp. 24-36 Wagler, A. (2013) Embracing Change: Exploring How Creative Professionals Use Interactive Media in Advertising Campaigns,Journal of Interactive Advertising, 13(2), pp.118-127

Methamphetamine Abuse and Foster Placement

Abuse of methamphetamine by pregnant women is a significant cause of concern among health practitioners due to the effects of prenatal and postnatal exposure of children to the drug. Scientific research on the impact of prenatal methamphetamine exposure illustrates the adverse effects of the drug on the gestational age and birth weight.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Methamphetamine Abuse and Foster Placement specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Children of methamphetamine addicts exhibit the characteristic of early gestational age in comparison to unexposed children. Similarly, the average birth weight of infants exposed to methamphetamine is significantly lower than that of their unexposed counterparts (Buckner et al., 2013). Another effect of methamphetamine exposure is the increased likelihood of premature delivery, which increases the vulnerability of infants to premature-birth risk factors, as evide nced by the case of baby Kim. Other effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure include fetal distress, increased instances of cardiac defects, the formation of cleft lips, and incidences of biliary atresia. As a stimulant of the central nervous system, methamphetamine alters the balance of essential body chemicals such as dopamine and serotonin. The chemical nature of methamphetamine allows the compound to cross the placenta with great ease so that it alters the fetal environment and enters the developing fetus bloodstream. Scientific research shows that methamphetamine induces vasoconstriction, which alters the flow of uteroplacental blood and pressure around the fetal environment. Vasoconstriction effects and altered blood flow and stress increase the chances of the occurrence of prenatal stroke or damages of vital organs such as the heart, which may relate to intracranial bleeding evident in baby Kim (Melo et al., 2006). Methamphetamine exposure alters the mental, emotional, an d behavioral development of children because of alterations in the standard cognitive, language, and motor functions. In this regard, children may expose signs of sleep disturbances and behavioral problems due to the mimicking of neurotransmitters, which may aggravate to impaired perceptual processing and uncoordinated movements (Pometlova et al., 2009). Practitioners need to consider certain factors in their assessments of foster care placement because the arrangement poses significant threats in terms of emotional and psychological damage to children when separated with their families.Advertising Looking for critical writing on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Considerations regarding the safety and health of a child are crucial because brain growth is most active in children and existing cases of physical and mental health may aggravate with foster placement (Suchman et al., 2006). In this regard, practitioners m ust ensure that placing children under foster care do not pose an adverse effect on their experience and healing process. Placing a child under foster care arouses the need for analyses of the implications of the occurrence of abuse and neglect in a foster home, which might hamper early brain development. Another important consideration is that although the purpose of foster care is to protect children from any form of abuse or neglect, creating and maintain a child’s attachment to caregivers is essential. Promoting the attachment between a child and caregivers supports an aspect of belonging and cushions the child from the challenges of coping with an alien environment. In this regard, the necessity to remove a child from home should be such that placing the child in a new environment offers protection from imminent risk of harm while safeguarding feelings of safety and care. Another consideration pertains to the ability of a child in foster care to deal with psychological s tress due to the brain’s tendency to shift to an acute stress response mode. Placing an infant in foster care is likely to cause poor feeding and aggravate the failure to thrive, which may lead to weak recovery for children with physical and mental health problems. The psychological health of a child largely depends on the existence of a relationship with an adult who can nurture, protect, and help the child to develop trust and a sense of security. The concept of developing an understanding of attachment in a child is crucial to the development and sustenance of bonds with other people during socialization (Ashford et al., 2010). Children with significant levels of attachment to their caregivers develop secure and productive relationships because they have developed excellent emotional security and conscience. A child perceives caregivers as a parent due to the existence of a respectful and long-lasting relationship, which ensures the psychological health of the child and th e development of positive attributes in terms of self-esteem.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Methamphetamine Abuse and Foster Placement specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The development of brain structures that control aspects such as a child’s personality traits and ability to learn and adjust to stress and emotional situations largely depends on the influence of factors in a child’s environment on nerve connections and neurotransmitters in the brain. In this regard, placing a child in an environment that disrupts emotional and cognitive development poses threats of impaired brain development to the child. The situation in which a child grows should enhance a sense of belonging and permanence by encouraging a continuous interaction and building of a relationship between the child and attachment figures. In this regard, long periods associated with the attainment of permanent placement i n foster care programs may interfere with a significant phase during which a child develops a sense of the relationship between physical, emotional, social and environmental factors. Furthermore, an environment that lacks appropriate mechanisms for stimulating cognitive, language, motor, and behavioral skills cannot support proper child growth and development. Practitioners should consider the risks associated with a lack of permanence in foster care, which creates a feeling of neglect among children and minimizes their chances of forming productive attachments. Subjecting a child to interrupted periods of stay at home and in foster care eliminates the experience of day-to-day attention that caregivers give children in the physical, emotional, and social sense. The lack of long-term interaction between a child and an adult who provides attention, comfort and nourishment denies the child an experience of acceptability and being of value while promoting adverse effects of neglect (And erson, 1998). Negligence curtails the development of language and vocabulary skills, which limits proper communication in children. Placing children in foster care poses threats to their growth and development because of the interruptions on various aspects of the continuity of caregivers. Unlike adults who deal with matters of impermanence by developing a mechanism for self-reliance and projecting constancy in the long term, children have a limited scope for establishing their sense of self and focus on contextualizing time in the present.Advertising Looking for critical writing on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this regard, children have a limited ability to cope with impermanence and moving them between homes adversely affects their well-being. Practitioners need to evaluate the risk of children before deciding on foster placement by analyzing various aspects of family functioning relating to the support of healthy child development to highlight instances of insufficient care and neglect. In this regard, pediatric practitioners can implement programs that minimize the improper care of children without necessitating the adoption of foster placement. References Anderson, V. (1998), Assessing Executive Functions In Children: Biological, Psychological, And Developmental Considerations, Neuropsychological  Rehabilitation, 8(3), 319-349. Ashford, J. B., LeCroy, C. W., Lortie, K. L. (2010), Human behavior in the social  environment: a multidimensional perspective (4th ed.), Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole/Thomson Learning. Buckner, J., Heimberg, R., Ecker, A., Vinci, C. (2013), A biopsychosoci al model of social anxiety and substance use, Depress Anxiety, 30(3), 276-84. Melo, P., Rodrigues, L. G., Silva, M. C., Tavares, M. A. (2006), Effects Of Prenatal Exposure To Methamphetamine On The Development Of The Rat Retina, Annals  of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1074(1), 590-603. Pometlova, M., Hruba, L., Slamberova, R., Rokyta, R. (2009), Cross-fostering Effect On Postnatal Development Of Rat Pups Exposed To Methamphetamine During Gestation And Preweaning Periods, International Journal of Developmental  Neuroscience, 27(2), 149-155. Suchman, N. E., McMahon, T. J., Zhang, H., Mayes, L. C., Luthar, S. (2006), Substance-abusing Mothers And Disruptions In Child Custody: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 30(3), 197-204. This critical writing on Methamphetamine Abuse and Foster Placement was written and submitted by user J0anna to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Political Contention Essay Essays

Political Contention Essay Essays Political Contention Essay Essay Political Contention Essay Essay Solita Collas-Monsod is a professor at the University of the Philippines: Diliman and a author in the Filipino Daily Inquirer. Solita Collas-Monsod’s article entitled â€Å"The Trillanes Myth† was published or appeared in the Filipino Daily Inquirer and was last updated in September 3. 2007. The writer was able to catch the attending of its audience. and she was able to efficaciously utilize the rubric of her article to give a bird’s oculus position of what is stored for the readers. She besides starts her column through a statement of her base sing the issue being discussed. The writer wanted to demo or inform the audience and or the readers of the Filipino Daily Inquirer about the Trillanes group which started a putsch d’ etat in Oakwood Hotel. or the good known â€Å"Oakwood ‘Mutiny† . wherein there were 300 uniformed military officers and work forces who were guided or led by Sen. Antonio Trillanes IV. Her statements besides province that the Court. led by July 25 order of RTC Judge Oscar B. Pimentel. should go on its house base with respects to enforcing the necessary jurisprudence or exercise authorities authorization. without proof of the badges of inequality. She assumed that the universe. more specifically the sympathisers of the Trillanes group or the military officers. should non be deranged or persuaded by the â€Å"idealisms and principles† of the Trillanes group. She besides states that the audience. we. should non be blinded by the myths or prevarications which the Trillanes group gives us. and that we should lodge or be steadfast with our authorities regulations about putsch d’etats. Solita Collas-Monsod values the truth and in seeking proper justness for such lawbreakers of the jurisprudence. She strongly believes that proper justness or penalty in conformity with the authorities Torahs should be imposed on the Trillanes group. and we should make this objectively. non subjectively. Monsod was able to specify footings clearly in her article. Solita Collas-Monsod did her assignment or did basic research. therefore. she was able to back up her statements with ample and adequate facts. The statement for me is successful. and it does convert me. There are facts or sufficient back uping statements used by Monsod in her article and these facts or statements seem truly dependable. My beliefs and line of thought was the same as Monsod with respects to the â€Å"Oakwood ‘Mutiny† . more specifically about the Trillanes group. Monsod’s statement strengthened my former belief about proper authorities executing of its Torahs. Politically talking. this is truly an eye-opening article non merely to the populace but to the authorities and its functionaries every bit good. more specifically to the Judicial Court. There are times when I had little uncertainties with respects the Judiciary system of the Philippines before. but because of Monsod’s article. and facts that she stated about the actions taken by the Court. led by Judge Pimentel. these uncertainties are non gone. I believe that so. the political universe still has its â€Å"impartiality. † Solita Collas-Monsod’s article affects the political procedure by merely beef uping the execution of Judicial jurisprudence and in informing the populace about the Trillanes group. The authorities and the populace. or the audience. are at the advantage. whereas the Trillanes group is decidedly in the losing terminal. Work Cited: Collas-Monsod. Solita. â€Å"The Trillanes Myth. † The Filipino Daily Inquirer. 2007.

How to get fired Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

How to get fired - Essay Example As you’re being shown the ropes, be sure to pull out that bottle of whisky or vodka and flash it around amicably – drink to everyone’s health and inform them all sweetly about how you need your daily tipple to really get going. Ask a lot of silly questions, the kind that even a ten year old would be ashamed to ask. The objective here is to demonstrate your utter lack of competence for the job you’ve been hired for, so plant those seeds of doubt liberally in your supervisor’s mind. And thirdly, be sure to leave early. Tell them you have a hot date, or yawn loudly and say you’re too bored to hang around any longer and leave. What? Still not fired? Well, don’t lose hope, lots of options are still open. Remember those tools I mentioned? Let’s take the last one first – blogsphere. Be sure to enter blogsphere with lots of ultra specific details on your personal blog about your Company. This is the place to mention anything and everything you don’t like about your boss and if the details you furnish are good enough to identify him or her, so much the better, especially if it’s a place your boss visits too. Waste lots of company time on your personal blog and let your work pile up. The chances of getting fired are directly proportional to the lack of discipline you display. Now let’s say your boss is a patient person and prepared to give you a chance. So you get a warning – but that’s it. Then it’s time to pull out the second tool – lies. The aim of the mission is to antagonize the boss by proving exactly how untrustworthy you are. Make personal calls from your office phone, gossip for hours with your friends or co-workers and then lie blatantly when the boss questions you – say that you were engaged in company business. If he or she tries to be pleasant to you and cracks a few jokes, do not laugh at any of them even if your funny bone is

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 26

Marketing - Essay Example In the cut throat business of electronic goods, Sonic mission would be to capture the market segment that caters to the upcoming young executives who are looking for gizmos which are small enough to hold in their pockets but powerful enough to be used as computer, or phone or even as an entertainment device, as and when the need arises. Globalization has changed the dynamic of the business and today the professionals need to have all the information at their tip while following a hectic schedule. So the smaller the device which can pack such features, better are its chances of capturing this target group. PDAs from big companies like Hewlett Packard, Sony etc. have been in the market for the few years. Palm One, Blackberry etc. are PDAs that are well known. Over the years, these PDAs have evolved and new features have been incorporated. So Sonic 1000, would be competing with the companies whose PDAs, already have a market. Since the growing world economy has opened opportunities where new technology would be playing a very important role. Sonic, needs to come out with something which would be unique while having all the features of the currently popular PDAs, at no extra cost. After thorough analysis of the present market, the company proposes to give several value added services to its customers. The new Sonic 1000 would be a small hand held compact computer serving as a 3G camera phone with wi-fi features like Bluetooth, infra red technology thus facilitating easy internet connection. Sonic 1000 PDA would be equipped with a micro mini hard drive of 40 GB and USB connection that would make data handling easy, fast and efficient. 3G facility would enable video conferencing and the executives would be able to interact with their office and clients, while on the move. Looking at the vast potential for this type of gizmos, in the first year, the company proposes to sell 240,000

Myanmar And Its Neighbours History Essay

Myanmar And Its Neighbours History Essay Myanmar is one of the few countries in Asia which has reserved interest in what happens outside its border. This is often reflected in the countrys external relations policy. Perception of outside threat to her national security and sovereignty made Myanmar play an independent but inactive role in external affairs. Historically, though Myanmars immediate neighbours were tortured by strong kings of Myanmar in different period of history, Myanmar also suffered in the hands of the neighbouring kingdoms. Thus, the people of Myanmar have general fear and indifferent psychosis towards outside world. This is closely related to nationalism, xenophobia and insular habits. From geographical standpoint also, Myanmar has favourable physical structure and geo-strategic position that has a lot to hide from the outside world. It has been mentioned in the second chapter that Myanmar is surrounded by mountains on three sides and by sea on the forth (south), which do not provide easy access to inside Myanmar. Myanmar was also situated in a vulnerable geo-strategic location with India and China between which Myanmar is sandwiched; and between contending cold war sphere of influence represented by Communist China and pro-western Thailand, Myanmar stood huddled. During the heyday of cold war, Southeast Asian region became a hotspot of the global power politics with many countries of the region taking side either with the western bloc headed by United States of America or the eastern bloc under the erstwhile Soviet Union. But Myanmar tended to look inward in the name of maintaining sovereignty and independent action. This is reflected in the foreign policy of the country as evolved, first as policy of neutralism and nonalignment under U Nu, and second, as policy of isolation under Ne Win, until it adopted policy of opportunistic engagement with the world outside particularly since late 1988. The parliamentary democracy era of 1950s avoided active international engagement in pursuanc e of non-aligned policy. The establishment of military rule in March 1962 brought Myanmars nonalignment and neutral ideology into a strong xenophobic and paranoid nationalism, clearly aimed at reducing any foreign influence on Myanmars politics, economy and society. Only international engagement beneficial to militarys perceived ideology and interest was allowed. In response to the military regimes monopoly of power and adverse human right records, many liberal democratic countries of the west imposed sanctions against Myanmar, and ostracised the country. In the meantime, global geo-political shifts occurred with the end of cold war in early 1990s following the disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union. Geo-economics rather than geo-politics gained greater credence in the changed international environment. Economic integration and regionalism ushered in with globalization as the thriving force. Internally, the crisis of 1988 necessitate shift in the country internal politics and appr oaches to external countries. Accordingly, Myanmar made adjustment in response to changes in domestic and external environment. With western liberal democratic countries still following policy anti-thetical to the militarys ideology, Myanmar focussed to its immediate neighbours and region. While the western countries used sanction policy, neighbouring Asian governments followed a policy of constructive engagement. In doing so, they have filled much of the international political and economic vacuum in Myanmar, giving the military leaders to pursue its self-proclaimed political road-map. This chapter is structured to highlight Myanmars foreign policy, the status of Myanmar in the world community, the countrys government-to-government relationship and relative integration with the world community, especially focussing its relationship with its three important neighbours namely China, Thailand and India. It will be conducted in three phases: period of neutrality and non-alignment under parliamentary democracy, period of isolationism under Ne Win and the period of engagement aftermath 1988. This chapter shows that Myanmars isolationism in external front is a necessary corollary of its domestic political setting. This chapter proves that Myanmars retreat from world of nations is premised on fear, security, non-interference, national interest, sovereignty and development. Though in its foreign relations, Myanmar has maintained regular relationship with all countries, in practice; Myanmar discourages the relationship between its people and those of other countries, so much so that it is like closing the country from the outside world and acts like a hermit of Asia. This chapter also deals with how domestic political-economic changes since 1988 have affected its external affairs policy. This chapter will show that Myanmars foreign policy and status in the international community was characterised by varying degrees of isolation, in response to its internal political setting and global political scenario. International isolationism became a comfortable state of the isolationist political system under the military leaders to deny the attention of the foreign powers as to what happen inside the borders of the country. From the militarys angle, international isolation was in pursuance of a strong, cohesive and developed Myanmar the basis of which was to ensure the military continue to stay in power until acceptable time had emerged to vacate seat of power. As the goal suggest, it will be shown in this chapter that Myanmar opens to outside world only it wo uld serve its highly self-centred interests. Myanmars direct neighbours are often forced to undergo a difficult balancing act. Myanmar in International Context One fact of the pre-colonial Myanmar was that the Burmans were generally indifferent towards foreigners. Historically, Myanmars political and military ties with the outside world had feared the country. The Thais, Manipuris, Chinese or Europeans provided ill-experience of dealing with outsiders. The Myanmese never accepted the British presence in Myanmar; they saw the British institutions and practices had undermined the Burman culture. Myanmars ill with the outsider strengthened during the World War Two, when its ties with the British made it a Japanese target. The resulting oppression and destruction during the World War Two left Myanmar even more apathetic to outsiders. With such fear psychosis, Myanmar became independent in 1948, also with new hopes and vigour. But the period coincided with the onset of cold war, where the world was divided into two rival camps headed by United States on the one hand, and Soviet Union, on the other, and most of the lesser powerful states followin g them. Two traditional rivals, China, a communist country in the north, and Thailand, a pro-western ally to the east, were allegedly expressed sympathy for Myanmars anti-government rebels and insurgents in the border areas. Very differently from them, Indian, a non-aligned partner under the leadership of prime minister U Nus close friend Jawaharlal Nehru, had been emerging as a distinct force in the world. This situation was well commented by U Nu in 1950. U Nu lamented his country as ..like a tender gourd among the cactus. We cannot move an inch. If we act irresponsiblyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and thrust the Union of Burma into the arms of one bloc, the other bloc will not be contented to look on with folded arms (U Nu, 5 September 1950 quoted by Thomson 1957:266 ). Back home, ethnic and political disunity erupted into rebellion and the ever increasing economic deterioration greatly disrupted legitimacy of the government and stability of the country. The new external and domestic challenges made materializing Aung Sans world-view difficult.  [1]  In response to the challenges, the new countrys leaders adopted neutralism and non-alignment as the cornerstone of the foreign policy of the country. At the same time, as Choudhary (2000:423) mentions, Myanmar also accepted the principles of maintaining friendly relations with all countries especially with her neighbours without being engaged too closely with any one of them, and of receiving no economic aid with string attached. Commenting on the genesis of Myanmars neutralism in dealing with outside world, Silverstein (1977:169) concludes: The policy of neutralism was based on certain realities that imposed themselves on either a civilian (before 1962) or a military (after 1962) Burmese government. Among them were Burmas small memories of World War Two and the suffering and destruction inflicted upon its people and the land; its internal political instability; and its ethnic and political disunity. These were superimpos ed on Myanmars traditional withdrawing and isolationist attitude and influence of personality of U Nu (Bandyopadhaya 1983:152), the first prime minister of independent Myanmar.  [2]  These factors, among others, shaped Myanmars world-view, that Myanmar would be a neutral and non-aligned country in an effort to maintain friendship with all countries in the world. Myanmar joined United Nations and it became a leading voice and founder-leader of the non-alignment movement, organizing the 1955 Bandung Conference in Indonesia along with like-minded leaders such as Nehru, Nasser, Tito and Sukarno; Myanmar also attended the first NAM summit held in 1961as the movements founder member. The foreign policy of Myanmar also sought a delicate balancing role between USA and USSR, and between India and China. India served as a model for Myanmars neutralism, non-alignment and democracy, but it never allied itself too closely with India, which could have upset its relations with China (Lintner 1 992). Thus, Myanmar became the first non-communist country to recognise the new government of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949 (Seekins 1983:54). When it feared its neutral policy would cease if it had joined the British Commonwealth of Nations, it wisely declined to join the body of former British colonies. Myanmar wanted to sever all ties with the outside world provided if it did not serve its interest, and if it proved against the principle of neutralism and non-alignment. Myanmars neutralism and non-aligned policy was first tested in the Korean Crisis of 1950. Myanmar voiced U Nus call for a halt to North Koreas aggression against the South Korea. When the United Nations forces crossed the 38th parallel, Myanmar withdrew its support on the belief that UN had overstepped its original mandate. In several other international issues such as Russian intervention in Hungary in 1956, Egypt crisis in 1956, Cuban crisis in 1961 etc. Myanmar did not followed big power line. Myanmar became a member of the Colombo Plan, but it refused to join SEATO founded in September 1954. Amidst hesitations, Myanmar received aid from both the US and USSR throughout the cold war period. The USSR offered specific gifts of a hospital, hotel and technological institutions, while US funds off and on after 1951 for agricultural and land reclamation projects. The government of U Nu tried to befriend with both India and China through his personal link with their respective leaders nam ely Nehru and Chou-en-Lai. In other words, throughout the parliamentary democracy period, Myanmar gained respect internationally by managing to live alongside large and powerful neighbours without compromising its independent foreign policy (Lintner 1992). It, thus, became one of the most respected leading governments in the region and its neutralism was much appreciated by western chanceries. The is proved by the fact that Myanmars U Thant was appointed, first, as the acting Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1961, and, later, twice elected to the position. U Thant led the world body for the next ten years. When the military rule took over power in March 1962  [3]  neutralism of the era of parliamentary democracy became isolationism and non-involvement or negative neutralism (Maung Maung Gyi 1981). Ne Wins Revolutionary Council followed an ideology called the Burmese Way to Socialism, mixed with a strong xenophobia and nationalistic policy, and corollary to it, Myanmar withdrew from international community, shunning most of the diplomatic ties established during U Nus period. Ne Win heading the new military regime exhibited deep-seated antagonism towards the west and its support for Kuomintang (KMT) troops in Myanmar, distrusted India, and feared Chinese communist influence in the country (Turku 2009:124). Contact with the outside world was kept to an absolute minimum. The military denied joining the Association of Southeast Asian Nations when it was formed in 1967 and even stunningly left the NAM in 1979, considering these organizations not neutral. Soon after coming to power, the Revolutionary Council enacted several laws clearly aimed at reducing any foreign influences over Myanmars economy and society. The government announced that it preferred only government to government aid of bilateral and multi-lateral programmes (Holmes 1967:189), and discontinued acceptance of aid from the American philanthropic organizations, the Ford and Asia Foundations, and also the Fulbright British Council programmes, as the military considered it belittling to accept aid from private organizations (Silverstein 1964:167). Freedom of press was denied and the government also acted forcefully to curb propaganda and information activities of all foreign diplomatic missions (Holmes 1967:189), thus denied people to deal directly with the outside world. Foreign diplomats and party officials (BSPP officials) were also subject to very strict set of rules (Turku 2009:192). If the party official sought to speak to a foreign national or issue/accept an invi tation from a foreigner they had to seek specific permission from the party, and upon return they had to give specific details on the conversations they had with foreigners (ibid.) The nationalisation programmes launched in February 1963 by the military government directly affected the Indians, Chinese, Anglo-Myanmese and Western agricultural, trade and banking communities, most of them were force to flee the country. The effort was indigenization of the economy by placing the private foreign owned enterprises in the hands of the people of Myanmar. Cynics argued that Myanmars new foreign policy basically meant no foreign policy at all apart from the concept of group survival; its embassies and consulates abroad did very little to improve relations with the host countries (Lintner 1992). Officially, the dictum friendship with all the countries of the world still remained a cornerstone of Myanmars foreign policy, but in practice, the country did not take any positive interest in furth ering friendly relations with other nations, except few (Singh 1977:181). As Lintner (1992) argues Myanmar under the military rule invented an intensely new dogma in foreign relations, that is, bilateralism, and preferably only with neighbours. General Ne Win made few official visits to Moscow, Peking and Washington, but few meaningful outcomes could be seen from the visits. For example, Ne Wins visit to USA in September 1966 related to some business affairs, military support for its anti-communist military campaign and to play golf. There were no real diplomatic ties and this diplomatic vacuum was well commented by one-Rangon (Yangon) based foreign envoy in 1988: We had no meaningful contact with any element of the Burmese government. They had a designated group of foreign ministry types who could come to our dinners and talk about golf and tennis, the weather and what fruits were in seasonduring my first three months in Burma, my backhand improved immensely, and I even took up the game of golf, which I had thought was just a waste of time. But I had time to waste (quoted in Lintner 1992, also see Lintner 1990:60-61). Under the leadership of the Ne Win, Myanmars military government sank into deep isolation. At the same time, because it had denied the economic benefits of engaging with other countries, and also since the military leaders lacked knowledge of managing economic affairs, the country gradually encountered economic recession. In response, the BSPP government showed inclination to international development assistance and projected its vast mineral wealth opportunities to the outside world. The government entered into development programmes with the World Bank, the IMF, the ADB and UNDP, as well as accepted increased bilateral aids. In 1976, World Bank set up an aid consortium, including Britain, the United States, Japan, Germany, France, Australia and Canada for consultation and the establishment of a common policy regarding Myanmar (Charney 2009:145 ).The BSPP regime also softened its state-controlled and autarchic economic policy, and by mid 1980s, foreign aids and loans began to enter Myanmar. Although Japan and West Germany were the largest of the foreign aid donors, the Peoples Republic of China also emerged as a major source of loans to the country from 1970 (ibid.). However, the inflow of foreign loans also led to corresponding increase in long-term debt, producing a critical state of indebtedness by the mid 1980s. This together with internal political isolation and economic mismanagement produced socio-economic devastations forcing Myanmar to become one of the least developed countries in 1987. This shocked the proud and highly nationalistic people of Myanmar. It spurred the 1988 protests attracting the greatest international interest into the countrys political and economic situations. The brutal crackdown and suppression of the protest by the military junta was swiftly publicised in the international community and even tually western governments imposed sanctions to Myanmar. Many western governments including Japan, non-governmental organizations and business bodies ended operations in Myanmar. Immediately after the crackdown, US withdrew its ambassador from Myanmar. Sanctions by United States were formally enacted in 1997, which was further tightened after 2007, following the crackdown on the monks protest, until it was uplifted recently in 2012.  [4]  Some businesses such as Ciz Claiborne, Osh Kosh BGosh and Pepsi (which was a joint venture with a native businessman) ended operations in Myanmar due to pressure from American-based activists. Contrary to western governments, most of Myanmars neighbouring countries adopted policy of constructive engagement and as mentioned, in doing so they followed much of the vacuum created by international isolation of Myanmar. The country had normalised relationships with two neighbouring powers, China and India (see later), by skilfully exploiting the oppo rtunistic intention of the two countries. Thailand was also captured by the economic prospects which engagement with Myanmar could provide. Following these events, Myanmar made changes to its external relation positions. It gave up its strict non-aligned neutralism  [5]  and isolationism and joined the regional GMS-EC (1992), BIMSTEC (1997), ASEAN (1997) and ACMCES (2003). Myanmar joining ASEAN in 1997 had greatly enhanced the credibility of the legitimacy hungry military government, because the ASEAN, citing their doctrine of non-interference in the internal affairs of the member countries rallied to the Myanmar governments defence. All these indicate government of Myanmar willing to integrate with the world community, but as evident, it could be when it could provide more benefit to the country. The military regime undoubtedly preferred no foreign attention and involvement in its affairs. For example in 2005, the ruling military government SPDC shifted capital of the country f rom Yangon to a more reclusive region Naypyitaw where influence of outsiders would be so profound. Similarly, aftermath of cyclone Nargis 2008, Myanmar thought a long before letting in any humanitarian and relief aids to the affected people, and when it was allowed, the aid agencies and countries were often obstructed by the military. Moreover, preference was given to neighbours over the western countries. For the last six decades, Myanmar has lived in varying degree of isolationism and opportunistic engagement. During the period of strict isolationism, Myanmar maintained diplomatic relationship with all the countries; it discourages relationship between its people and those of other countries, to such an extent that it is like closing the country from the outside world and acts like a hermit of Asia. The military junta certainly not liked foreign attention and involvement in its internal affairs. Myanmar is interested in foreign aids and loans, external trade and investments, but it did not preferred to abandon its policy of isolation. The pro-democracy uprising of 1988 divided international communitys perception on Myanmar. The western role with regards to Myanmar had long been policy of sanction and isolation, which proved counter-productive. The western countries such as USA, countries of European Union, France, Australia and Asian country-Japan and South Korea, imposed sanctions o n Myanmar thus supplemented Myanmars policy of isolation. Myanmar juntas poor human right record and denial of democracy invited western ostracism. Certainly, the sudden international isolation and sanction policy hampered Myanmars economy badly, and this prompted Myanmars attention and open policy towards its immediate neighbours. The immediate neighbours of Myanmar have acted as a balancing act for the military junta. Myanmar and China China is the largest, the most powerful and practically the nearest of Myanmars neighbours. Historically, Myanmar experienced memory of fear, distrust and entrenched relationship in relation to its northern neighbour. In different periods of history, China posed a threat to the security and sovereignty of the monarchical Myanmar. Many strong Chinese dynasties had intervened in Myanmar kings affairs in different periods of history and caused considerable havoc. Kublai Khan sent armies from Yunnan in late 1980 to subjugate the kingdom of Pagan, effectively bringing to an end the first unified Burman kingdom (Seekins 1997:527). The last king of the Pagan dynasty, king Narathitrapate, earned the nickname Tarok Pye Min, meaning the king who ran away from the Chinese (Trager 1966:234). Chinese had invaded Myanmar during the Chinese Qing dynasty. It was an important event in the history of Myanmar that when Chinese Qing king launched several mission to subdue the arrogant Myanmar king betwe en 1765 and 1768, Chinese professional armies was utterly outfought and its viceroy was forced to sue for peace (Tinker 1967:338). Professor Yingcong Dai (2004) writes, not only did one after another commander-in-chief of the Qing dynasty fail to conquer Myanmar, but the Qing troops also suffered extremely heavy casualties. When Myanmar was incorporated into British Indian Empire, China adopted a cautious attitude in dealing with Myanmar. Myanmar became an independent country in 1948. Next year, the civil war in China had ended with victory of the communist over the nationalist Chinese. China became a communist country under the leadership of Mao Zedong, which was given official recognition by the Myanmar authority. In fact, Myanmar became the first non-communist country to give recognition to the Peoples Republic of China (PRC).  [6]  However, in a world divided by ideological and power competitions, Myanmar adopted a policy of non-alignment and neutrality, whereas China became a staunch proponent of international communism considering all countries beyond the socialist camps as imperialist or controlled by imperialist or anti-revolutionary forces. As a result, Myanmese neutralism and non-alignment policy could not win the trust of the Chinese authority. China believed, whether in economic, military or political dimension Myanmars nature has not been changed; it is still a typical country even after its independe nce (Hongwei 2012:15). Hongwei (2007:18) cites Chinese authorities comment on Myanmars neutralism and non-alignment as follows: On one side, Burma is bordering China, and hence do not dare to side with the imperialists [the West] and make China an enemy. At the same time, when Burma is having controversies with the imperialists, they want the support of China and the Soviet Union. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) On the other hand, the ruling class in Burma (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) is to a relatively large degree depending on the imperialists. On occasion, the Chinese government expressed its dislike for the Myanmese leaderships alleged readiness to let the western powers (Great Britain and United States) influence over Myanmars economy and politics. For instance, on September 3, 1952, when Chou-en-Lai visited Moscow and talk with Stalin, he stated that the Myanmese government conceal its real position on China, but it actually pursued the policy of anti-China following the UK and US lead (Hongwei 2012:15). In other words, during the period 1948-1962, China was not at all excited by the idea of Myanmar being an independent country as the Chinese still considered Myanmar to be under foreign influence. Conversely, Myanmars threat perception to its national security from China did not vanished even after independence. The Chinese factor, in turn, influenced Myanmar in adopting a policy of non-alignment and neutrality in a world divided by power politics and cold war. As Thomson (1957:336) writes, fear of antagonizing China ha s also been at least partially responsible for Burmas policy of neutralism. The first factor standoff in the Myanmar-China relations in the initial years of the independence was the unauthorised occupation by the remnants of the Chinese Nationalist or Kuomintang (KMT) in Myanmars northern border. When Mao Zedong had established a communist regime in China in 1949, armed forces loyal to Chaing-Kai-Sheik, the KMT leaders, by crossing over Yunnan province established base in the eastern part of the Shan state. It is alleged that the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) supplied money and arms to the illegal KMT forces, and encouraged them to raid into communist China from Myanmars border soil (Choudhary 2000:424, Seekins 1997:527). The Myanmese authority feared that China would use this as a pretext to invade Myanmar, and occupy the unsettled border areas under the guise of the elimination of the KMT troops (Hongwei 2012:14). Myanmar also feared that China would misunderstood that it was intentionally proving shelter to the KMT remnants and supportin g Taiwan and the US anti-communist policy toward China (ibid.). Myanmars fear and distrust for China continued and as a result, Myanmar was very cautious in dealing with China. The two countries established formal diplomatic ties early in 1950s. While Myanmar attempted to deliberately avoid antagonizing China, China, in response, adopted a dual strategy. On the one side, China pursued a policy of establishing good diplomatic relationship with the government of the Union of Myanmar by establishing diplomatic ties and exchanging official visits, on the other side, it sympathized Communist rebel in Myanmar. It can be mentioned here that immediately after independence Myanmar faced severe threat to its national security from the communist rebels and ethnic insurgents. During this turbulent years of internal revolts, China extended covert sympathy in cause of the revolting communist rebels in Myanmar by endorsing party-to-party relations between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the White Flag Communist Party (BCP) of Myanmar led by Than Tun. The Chinese authority rendered psychological support and strategic advices to the BCP which was not liked by the Myanmese authority. So, the BCP with the support of the Chinese posed a serious threat to Myanmars national security.  [7]  This factor greatly held back the growth of a close and warmth government-to-government relations between Myanmar and China. Nevertheless, the bilateral relationship achieved significant milestone in 1954 when the Chinese Premier Chou-en-Lai visited Rangon in 1954, and with his Myanmese counterpart U NU issued a joint statement declaring the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence which henceforth acted as the basis for the Myanmar-China relationship.  [8]  The government-to-government ties were further strengthened when U NU paid back a visit to China latter in the year 1954. Not to attract communist Chinas wrath over the KMT issue, the previous year, the Myanmese authority had so ught attention and support of the United States and United Nations. In 1953, Myanmar asked the United States to cancel its aid programme to the KMT remnants, and took the question of illegal Chinese nationalist forces inside Myanmar to the United Nations (Choudhary 2000:242).  [9]  However, despite the efforts of the world body, only a partial repatriation of the Chinese nationalist troops to Taiwan was affected, and the remaining KMT soldiers settled down in the Shan state and became involved with the Myanmese ethnic and political dissents and active in the illegal opium trade (ibid.) until the forces had been uprooted in late 1980s. The more significant development between Myanmar-China relations came when the two governments had managed to reach agreement on the historical issue of border settlement in 1960. The Sino-Myanmar border treaty was signed in 1960 defining the international boundary between the two countries. The same year the two countries also signed a treaty of f riendship and mutual non-aggression which reinforced the treaty of 1954.  [10]  According to the treaty, the two parties would not invade each other and refrain from any military alliance directed against the other party. In 1961, Chinas People Liberation Army (PLA) and army of Myanmar launched joint operations against the KMT forces operating between their borders. The period before the military led By Ne Win had establish political control in Myanmar in 1962, Sino-Myanmar relation was nervously friendly. Myanmar, during this period, was very cautious not to offend PRC and courted its friendship because, unlike India, China posed potential threat to interfere in Myanmese internal affairs due to presence of KMT forces inside Myanmars northern border and also it adopted policy of export of revolution. Myanmar adopted and pursued policy of non-alignment and neutrality, and showed friendly gestures, which were largely grounded on maintaining its national security and freedom of action. The country maintained policy of neutrality during the Sino-Tibet affairs of 1950 and refused to brand China an aggressor in Korean Crisis of 1951 in United Nations meetings. But, the Chinese dual-track policy toward Myanmar continued. In 1957, U Nu spoke in Myanmars parliament that new Chinas relationship with the insurrectional BCP are not clear, but expressed some fraternal case (cited in Hongwei 2012:12). To China, Myanmars non-alignment and neutralism was not genuine, but fickle and unpredictable. Thus, though there was mutual suspicion and mistrust, the period 1949-1962 was a period of ambivalent peaceful co-existence in the bilateral relatio

Sustainable Development Essay -- Environmental Issues

Upton’s premise is a mix-use development providing the full range of dwelling types supported by economic opportunity and social infrastructure. The site was assembled through English partnerships, which were granted outline planning permission for Upton in 1997 (Community and Local Government 2007). The scheme aims to deliver 1,382 homes by its completion in 2013 (Clark 2010). Engaging the community was an important aspect of the schemes development process. In 2001, English Partnerships (EP) collaborated with Northampton Borough Council, the Prince’s Foundation and EDAW, an urban design consultancy, to establish the Upton Working Group to implement the Upton project. Several revised additions of the Upton Urban Framework Plan followed through ‘Enquiry by Design’ for the period of 2001-2002, in late 2002 Northampton Borough Council granted planning consent for the new framework (Street 2006). The multi-faceted characteristics of high-quality urban extensions are detailed in the Sustainable Urban Extensions: Planned through Design report from the Princes Foundation, focusing particularly on the quality of new housing. Paraphrased below are the proposed requirements to create a successful development indicated by the report: Here the report identifies the physical attributes of an urban extension, focussing on quality of new housing. Higher density, a mix of housing types and tenures, legible neighbourhoods, communal areas including green space and communal amenities and facilities are all observed as necessary. However, due to adverse effects of the economic downturn, Upton is yet to provide the substantial amenities as originally proposed. Consequently, residents of Upton will require transportation to obtain essential serv... ... the primary mode of movement and as a result reducing their dependence on cars. Currently streets and buildings are orientated to maximise natural lighting in buildings whilst increasing the proficiency of rooftop photovoltaic cells. Additionally, attempts have been made to ensure a strong sense of place and community identity is incorporated as a parallel to the wider sustainability strategy. The Upton Design code established and set out the standard requirements and development framework on the site. Furthermore the design code commenced open dialogue between developers and their design groups and the Upton Working Group, essentially establishing a co-operative and creative partnership. Nonetheless, building character is determined by individual developers and architects (CABE 2011), and these houses comprise of various consciously-predetermined styles.

Maalouf – Leo Africanus

Amin Maalouf’s novel Leo Africanus, a fictionalized memoir by an actual sixteenth-century Muslim adventurer, is an often-interesting account of life during the turbulent end of the Middle Ages, told from the point of view of a man who survived his life’s ample turmoil and bridged conflicting cultures without wholly belonging to any. The narrator of this work, a traveler and author known in his lifetime as Jean-Leon de Medici or Leo Africanus, was born in 1488 as Hasan al-Wazzan, son of a prominent Muslim family in Granada, Spain.   At the time, southern Spain’s Andalusia region (of which Granada was its chief city) was Muslim-dominated, with Catholics, Muslims, and Jews alike coexisting in a cosmopolitan, relatively tolerant atmosphere.   Maalouf depicts Granada as an intriguing, exotic, tolerant place for its time, despite its corrupt rulers and ultimate weakness before the invading armies of Aragon and Castile. Shortly after his birth, Spanish forces conquered Granada and soon started persecuting all non-Christians, forcing them to convert to Catholicism or flee, depriving them of their wealth in either case.   Though European history depicts Spain’s liberation from Muslim rule as a glorious event, it was a tragic blow for the Muslims who had lived there for centuries and built a prosperous, learned society.   As his uncle Khali, a wealthy diplomat, laments, â€Å"See how the people . . . have been forced into slavery after their surrender!   See how the Inquisition has raised pyres for the Jews . . . [and] for the Muslims as well!   How can we stop this, except by resistance, mobilization, and jihad?†Ã‚   (Maalouf, 1988, p. 25)   Though the word â€Å"jihad† today carries ominous meanings for Westerners, in this context it meant self-defense in the face of an intolerant enemy. The Spanish appear in a distinctly negative light, as bloodthirsty, vindictive conquerors who used the Inquisition to crush their enemies, real or perceived.   Maalouf offers in interesting inversion of Western opinion here, and he shows post-1492 Granada as a dark, dangerous place whose intellectual life is crushed.   Also, while modern readers think of Jews and Muslims as mortal enemies, Maalouf demonstrates that they enjoyed peaceful relations in medieval Andalusia, and Leo laments the Spanish edict mandating â€Å"the ‘formal termination of all relations between Christians and Jews, which can only be accomplished by the expulsion of all the Jews from our kingdom’† (Maalouf, 1988, p. 59). His uncle Khali assumes a dominant role in Leo’s life, helping educate him and, more importantly, taking him along on his 1504 diplomatic mission to Timbuktu, then an important Muslim cultural and commercial center in sub-Saharan West Africa.   Even as a teenager, he demonstrates keen insights to the world around him, particularly to the appearances, peoples, and attributes of the cities he visits en route.   For example, he describes Ain al-Asnam, an ancient city destroyed during Islam’s spread, as â€Å"sole witness of the age of ignorance† (Maalouf, 1988, p. 155), implying that despite its former glories, it symbolizes the dark era before Islam spread its enlightened message. In addition, he reveals a gift for vivid descriptive prose when he says of Sijilmassa, a once-thriving city on the road to Timbuktu: â€Å"Of its walls, once so high, only a few sections remain, half-ruined, and covered with grass and moss.   Of its population, there remain only various hostile clans . . . [who] seem merciless toward each other [and] deserve their fate† (Maalouf, 1988, p. 157).   Though he is not intolerant of peoples different from himself, he also does not shy from passing judgments on unfortunate places, though his own life is full of misfortunes; he accepts fate’s fickle nature, which perhaps sustains him through his difficulties. His uncle dies en route back to Fez and Leo returns home to work in a hospice and marry his cousin Fatima, who is far less pleasing than Hiba, the slave girl who becomes his longtime mistress (similar to Warda, the servant whom his father chose over his wife, Leo’s mother).   He also tries to save his sister Mariam from the leper colony, where an influential suitor, a highway robber named the Zarwali, had had her banished for refusing to marry him. One sees by this point that women have a difficult position in Muslim society; denied many rights, they live tightly circumscribed lives and are subject to male commands and whims at all times.   Maalouf does not impose modern sensibilities here; he remains within the character of the times and accepts this lack of freedom as Muslims of the time did, and Leo laments his sister’s fate less because she lacks freedom than because her punishment was unduly cruel. As he enters adulthood, his life continues a pattern of good fortune followed by personal or financial disasters from which he always recovers and rebuilds.   Leo becomes a successful merchant in Fez and fathers a daughter with Fatima, but when his longtime friend Harun (who has married his unfortunate sister Mariam to liberate her from the leper colony) causes the Zarwali’s death, Leo is expelled from Fez for his complicity and loses his fortune on the road to a band of thieves.   He finds some relief in Hiba’s native village, where her former peers buy her back from Leo, restoring some of his wealth but costing him the love of his life. He accepts these reversals surprisingly well by modern standards, but Maalouf implies that the late medieval/early modern world was a cruel and fickle place, with few certainties in life other than misfortune.   A common theme throughout the book is that such events are simply God’s will; when he loses both his fortune and Hiba, Leo laments, â€Å"Such is the judgment of the Most High!† (Maalouf, 1988, p. 214).   His faith does not waver throughout the story, even when Christians abduct, enslave, and force him to become a Catholic. Leo’s destiny seems to be the roads he travels throughout his adult life; his form of geography and travelogue seem to be his calling in life, and he demonstrates a keen grasp of how to describe people and places.   His travels take him throughout northern, western, and central Africa, and he states without obvious boasting, â€Å"When our geographers of old spoke of the land of the Blacks, they only mentioned Ghana and the oases of the Libyan desert. . . . I myself, who am only the last of the travellers, know the names of sixty black kingdoms . . . from the Niger to the Nile† (Maalouf, 1988, p. 216).   Such knowledge would later serve him well. He becomes involved with the era’s political intrigues when he meets and marries Nur, the widow of the Ottoman ruler’s nephew.   While Leo supports the Turks in the vain hope that they will liberate Andalusia from the Spanish and make it safe for Muslims again, Nur opposes it and fears that Turkish agents will murder her infant son to prevent him from assuming the throne.   Reflecting on the discord within his own faith, Leo asks, â€Å"Is it not in the blade of a knife brandished by the Friend of God above a pyre that the revealed religions meet?†Ã‚   (Maalouf, 1988, p. 245)   He longs for the tolerance and unity of his youth in Granada, hence his somewhat naà ¯ve support for the Ottoman Empire, of which he says, â€Å"the turbans of the Turks and the skull caps of the Christians and Jews mingle without hatred or resentment† (Maalouf, 1988, p. 258). His destiny as a geographer and scholar is realized when Sicilian pirates kidnap him in Tunisia and present him to Pope Leo X as a slave.   As with the rest of his life, this misfortune leads to another lucky phase, as the pontiff, impressed with Leo’s intellect, employs him as a protà ©gà ©.   Forcing him to become a Christian and renaming him John-Leo de Medici (for the pope and the family that takes an interest in him), the pope employs him as a teacher of Arabic while tutoring him in European languages, so that he can produce a volume of his travels, Description of Africa.   He earns his freedom but becomes embroiled in papal intrigues, so he must flee yet again – this time for Tunisia, where he can again be a Muslim.   In closing, he advises the reader to be himself in the face of adversity, saying, â€Å"Muslim, Jew or Christian, they must take you as you are, or lose you† (Maalouf, 1988, p. 360).   Though he has kept his Muslim faith inwardly i ntact, Leo’s ability to adapt has ironically saved and sustained him. The book illustrates the uncertainty of life in the pre-modern era, since peaks and valleys of instability mark Leo’s life from the beginning.   His family loses its fortune and is driven from Granada by conquering Spanish Christians, who then launch a wave of intolerance against Jews and Muslims, forcing them to either become Catholic or leave.   In addition, he loses his fortune to thieves, his wife Fatima dies young, he remarries Nur (who leaves him after his abduction), and he is enslaved by Christian pirates in the Mediterranean. He handles it philosophically, accepting the fact that his life is destined to be itinerant, turbulent, and beyond his ability to control.   As he tells Nur, â€Å"Between the Andalus which I left and the Paradise which is promised to me life is only a crossing.   I go nowhere, I desire nothing I cling to nothing, I have faith in my passion for living . . . as well as in Providence† (Maalouf, 1988, p. 261). Overall, Leo Africanus is a solid effort to take the modern reader into the mind of an educated, influential Muslim living at an unstable time in European history.   Maalouf does not inject modern sensibilities into his narrative but depicts the Muslim culture of the times fairly, without a pro-Western bias.   In addition, he strives for authenticity by using a sort of formal, occasionally wordy prose that one assumes is based on the actual writing and conversational style of Leo Africanus’ times.   In the process of producing this interesting historical figure’s tale, Maalouf also makes clear one of the chief realities of this era in history – that life is uncertain and fickle, and that the intelligent, resourceful, and adaptable are best suited to endure these shifts of fortune. REFERENCES Maalouf, A. (1988).   Leo Africanus.   Chicago: New Amsterdam Books. Maalouf – Leo Africanus Amin Maalouf’s novel Leo Africanus is a novel based on an actual sixteenth-century Spanish-born Muslim geographer and writer born under the name Hasan al-Wazzan.   The author gives the reader clear insights into the conflicts between the Muslim world (whose influence in Europe was then waning) and that of Christianity (which reasserted control over his native Spain and to which he became a somewhat unwilling servant). The theme of the title character’s life is conflict and misfortune, which seem to plague him from early childhood.   Born in 1488 to a rich Muslim family in Granada, Spain, he witnesses as a small child the Catholic victory over the ruling but weakened Muslim elites, followed by a wave of vengeance and intolerance against not only Muslims but also the Jews, who have also lived peacefully in Spain with Christians for centuries.   Hasan (the name he uses throughout his life, except when in service to the Pope) demonstrates some of this by mentioning how members of the different religions interact and how some cultural exchange occurs. For example, when discussing dates, he frequently refers to Christian and Muslim holidays in tandem, showing their mutual acceptance: â€Å"It all happened on the ninth day of the holy month of Ramadan, or, rather . . . on St. John’s Day, the twenty-fourth of June, since Mihrajan was celebrated not in accordance with the Muslim year but following the Christian calendar† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 63). Here, Maalouf makes clear that Islam was then the much more tolerant religion, accepting aspects of Judaism and Christianity that the Catholic Church refused to allow.   Because Christianity and Islam were fighting for territory, intolerance was an instrument of control and oppression, and the victorious Spaniards had to qualms about driving out or murdering Jews and Muslims who refused to accept forced conversions to Christianity. His family, deprived of its wealth, flees for the North African city of Fez, where they live as refugees under the care of his kindly uncle, who provides for his education.   As he comes of age, he shows a remarkable ability to observe and understand the peoples and places he encounters – a gift he sharpens when, as a teenager, he accompanies his rich, well-connected uncle on a diplomatic excursion to Timbuktu. For example, he writes of Sijilmassa, a once-thriving city on the road to Timbuktu: â€Å"Of its walls, once so high, only a few sections remain, half-ruined, and covered with grass and moss.   Of its population, there remain only various hostile clans . . . [who] seem merciless toward each other [and] deserve their fate† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 157).   Though he is not intolerant of peoples different from himself, he also does not shy from passing judgments on unfortunate or blighted places, though his own life is full of misfortunes; he accepts fate’s fickle nature, which perhaps sustains him through his difficulties. Hasan’s adult life is generally unstable and rife with misfortune, which seems to be the norm in a world where little other than hard luck is guaranteed.   After his uncle dies, he returns to Fez to work in a hospice for the sick and insane, marries a rather plain cousin (despite his long relationship with Hiba, a slave mistress), later becomes a prosperous merchant, and seems to live a somewhat conventional life.   However, he is not destined to enjoy a stable, uneventful life. When he starts his business career, his mother makes a prediction that seems to foreshadow the direction of his life: â€Å"Many men discover the whole world while seeking only to make their fortune.   But as for you, my son, you will stumble on your treasure as you seek to discover the world† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 187).   Indeed, fate – so strong a presence in the novel that it almost seems like a character – intervenes and his life is again turbulent.   When he becomes embroiled in his childhood friend (and brother-in-law) Harun’s plot to avenge his sister Mariam’s confinement to a leper colony, the authorities expel Hasan from Fez and thieves on the road rob him of his fortune.   In addition, he is forced to sacrifice his mistress, Hiba, in order to regain some of his riches. However, his destiny is to discover the world, which indeed is why modern readers even know of his existence.   Always astute and insightful, Hasan compiles his observations during his many travels, forming the basis for his lasting renown as an early geographer and expert on sub-Saharan Africa.   He travels throughout the continent’s northern and central regions and, when speaking of other writers’ ignorance of Africa, states, â€Å"I myself, who am only the last of the travellers, know the names of sixty black kingdoms . . . from the Niger to the Nile.   Some have never appeared in any book, but I would not be telling the truth if I would claim to have discovered them myself, since I only followed the ordinary route of the caravans† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 216). He moves to Cairo (then under Ottoman Turkish rule) to restart his often-disrupted life, commenting that â€Å"I was suddenly certain that after the tempest which had destroyed my fortune a new life was awaiting me in this land of Egypt, a life of passion, danger and honour† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 218).   Here, he again finds himself on the wrong side of destiny when he marries into the Turkish sultan’s family and supports them in their political maneuverings, in the vain hope that they will retake Granada in the name of Islam. He dreams his entire life of his birthplace and the words of a visiting delegation from the sultan foster the naà ¯ve faith that he can return: â€Å"A great Muslim empire is in the process of coming to life in the East, and we in the West should stretch out our hand to it.   Until now, we have been subjected to the law of the unbelievers† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 257).   However, this scheme also goes awry and he is enslaved by Italian pirates, who give him to Pope Leo X. This phase of Hasan’s life is a strange twist of fate, in which apparent tragedy turns into great luck.   The pontiff, seeing that the learned, sophisticated Hasan is no ordinary captive, employs him as a tutor of Arabic and requires him to learn Latin, Turkish, and lessons in the Christian faith.   Hasan deems this â€Å"a refined form of forced labour . . . [and] proof of [the Pope’s] own enthusiastic interest in me† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 294). The end result of this gentle captivity is Description of Africa, a book describing his many travels in a continent with which Europeans were still largely unfamiliar.   He wins his freedom but again finds himself on the wrong side of a larger political conflict (this time within the Catholic Church), so he escapes Rome for Tunisia, where he can openly practice Islam again.   In closing, he advises the reader to be himself in the face of adversity, saying, â€Å"Wherever you are, some will want to ask questions about your skin or your prayers.   Beware of gratifying their instincts . . . beware of bending before the multitude!† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 360).   Though he has kept his Muslim faith inwardly intact, his ability to adapt and â€Å"go with the flow† preserves him. Without dwelling on the point, Maalouf makes clear to the reader that in this unstable, uncertain medieval world, Fate plays an exceptionally strong role in everyday life.   Indeed, Hasan witnesses plenty of calamity in his life; his birthplace is seized and made repressive by Spanish Catholics; he and his family see their wealth rise and vanish repeatedly; he marries twice and loses both wives (the first dies young, while the second abandons him after his enslavement); and he is forced to seek his fortunes elsewhere several times in his life. He accepts the fact that he is meant to live on the move and takes little for granted, seemingly aware that his fortunes can be reversed at any time (and frequently are).   However, he never becomes embittered; he accepts his fate but laments, â€Å"Such is the judgment of the Most High† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 214).   His faith does not waver throughout the story, and even when Christians abduct him and force his conversion to Catholicism, he follows but keeps his innermost religious beliefs to himself.   He excels as a chameleon and thus survives. His second wife comments on his tendency to travel and disrupt his own life, asking, â€Å"What substance are you made of that you accept the loss of one town after another, one homeland after another, one woman after another, without ever fighting, without ever regretting, without ever looking back?†Ã‚   † (Maalouf, 1989, p. 261).   He responds by telling her that â€Å"life is only a crossing. I go nowhere, I desire nothing I cling to nothing, I have faith in my passion for living, in my instinct to search for happiness, as well as in Providence† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 261).   Indeed, in this exchange, Maalouf presents the reader with the essence of Hasan’s character.   He is well aware of life’s transience and thus is passionate only about his religion; though he seeks wealth and happiness, he wastes little time mourning the loss of either and looks ahead to â€Å"the final Place where no man is a stranger before the face of the Creator† (Maalouf, 1989, p. 360). Leo Africanus is more than simply a fictionalized memoir.   It is a classic fish-out-of-water story, illustrating how this educated, well-connected Muslim merchant, traveler, and scholar finds reverses and radical changes in his life at several turns but adapts to each.   In addition, it demonstrates how people of that era were very much at Fate’s mercy; little could be taken for granted in such unstable times, but the narrator never loses faith in the â€Å"Most High,† the God to whom he turns for sustenance. In somewhat formal prose that one suspects was the norm for educated people of that era, Maalouf does not impose a modern viewpoint but offers a fair, compassionate, historically-aware portrayal of both Muslim society and one of the more unusual figures within it.   The story of Hasan al-Wazzan is, more than anything else, the tale of an accomplished scholar and a consummate survivor who never forgot who he was, the culture that produced him, or the deity that showed him mercy amidst the world’s turbulence. REFERENCES Maalouf, A. (1989).   Leo Africanus.   Chicago: New Amsterdam Books.